영어임용 - <영어교육론 1>Teaching Methods(요약본)

안녕하세요, 나인지로 입니다.

서울 영어 임용에 합격해서 교육현장에 나온지 벌써 3년이 다 되어가네요.

요즘 저는 교육학/제2언어교육 쪽으로 해외 대학원 석사과정을 알아보고 있어요.

서류 준비에 여념이 없는 나날들이에요.. ㅠ ㅠ

SOP를 쓰는 중에 전문용어를 써야할 필요성을 느껴 옛날 제가 임용공부 시절에 굉장한(?) 시간을 투자해서 만들어놓은

자료를 다시 펼쳐보게되었어요.

다음 영어교사 카페에 자료 공유해드렸던 적도 있어서

문득 블로그에 임용준비하시는 분들을 위해 공유해드리는 게 어떨까 싶어서 하나씩 자료 올려보려고 해요.

물론, 본인이 직접 중요한 부분을 종합해서 만들어낸 요약본이 가장 도움이 되긴 합니다.

그래도 약간의 가이드가 되지 않을 까해서 올려봐요.

왜냐면 제가 공부할 때 이게 가장 힘든 부분이었거든요.

어떤 강사가 좋아서 그 강사 책을 읽고 강의를 듣다보면, 또 다른 강사 책을 읽으면 모르는 게 막 튀어나오고,

또 한국말로 되어있는 교재를 보면 이를 원서에서 영어로 찾아서 번역하기도 하고..

저한테는 종합요약본이 필요했는 데 말이죠.

그래서 저는 공부하면서도 아, 다음 수험생들을 위해서라도

'무조건 컴퓨터로 편집해서 자료를 만들자.'라고 생각했었어요.

그리고 항상 3공 바인더를 활용해서 모르는 중요한 내용이 나오면, 다시 끼어넣고 하는 과정을 반복했어요.

  물론, 펜으로써서 덧붙이기도 했구요.

이런 과정을 통해 자신의 요약본을 만들고,

11월에는 그 요약본을 10번 이상 반복하신다면 좋은 결과 얻지 않으실까 생각합니다.

아, 내용을 완전히 숙지하시고 마인드맵! 그려보시는 거 추천합니다.

시험근접해서는 거의 모든 내용을 보지 않고 기록해 낼 수 있어야해요.

서론이 길었네요.

오늘은 Teaching Methods에 관한 요약본 올려드릴게요.

혹시 Word 파일이 필요하신 분은 댓글로 메일 달아주시면 보내드릴게요.

<<Teaching Methods>>

<<Traditional Approach>>

1.     Grammar Translation Method

; A language teaching method in which the central focus is on grammatical rules, and vocabulary memorization as the basis for translating from one language to another.

 

-        Focuses primarily on reading and writing.

-        Use authentic texts.

-        Classes are taught in the mother tongue.

: SS have the same native language background.

-        Encourage SS to translate rather than “think” in the TL.

-        Highlights grammar and vocabulary differences between the native and TL.

-        Vocabulary in the form of lists of isolated words. (:context X)

-        Little or no attention to pronunciation.

-        Texts are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.

 

(+)Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored.

(-) demotivates SS

   Do not develop communicative competence.

   Theorylessness

 

2.     Direct Method

; A language teaching method that emphasized direct target language use, oral communication skills, and inductive grammar, without recourse to translation from the first language.

 

-        Emphasizes listening and speaking. (:oral language)

-        Classes are conducted in the TL.

-        Uses spontaneous conversations and explanations.

-        Only everyday vocabulary and sentences taught

-        small, intensive classes

-        Q & A exchanges between Ts and SS built up oral communication skills

-        Grammar was taught inductively.

-        Teaching through modeling and practice.

-        teaching concrete vocabulary through demonstration, objects, pictures

       abstract vocabulary through association of ideas

-        Accuracy important : correct pronunciation and grammar

 

(+) Motivates SS.

   Oral communication skills↑

(-) Weak theoretical foundations.

   Its success may have been more a factor of the skill and personality of the T than of the methodology itself.

 

3.     Audiolingual Method(앞부분 참조)

 

+) Reading Method

; A reaction to the problems experienced in implementing the DM; reading was viewed as the most usable skill to have in a foreign language since not many people traveled abroad at that time.

-        Only the grammar useful for RC is taught. (↔GTM0

-        V is controlled at first (based on frequency and usefulness) and then expanded.

-        Translation is once more a respectable classroom procedure.

-        RC is the only lg skill emphasized.

-        T does not need to have good oral proficiency in the TL.

<<Innovative Approach >>

1.    Humanistic Approach

(1)  Community Language Learning

; was inspired by Carl Rogers's (Humanistic psychology) affective view of education in which learning is facilitated by supportive community.

- T stands outside a circle

- SS say what they want to say by translating suggesting or amending the students' utterances.

- The students' utterances will be recorded and they can be analyzed at a later date.

+++ Teachers are to facilitate learning and to help students with what they want to say.

 

①    Counseling-Learning model

②    Non-defensive learning

③    group members interact in an interpersonal relationship

: supportive community → lower inhibition or defense

④    T: counselor – SS: client

 

[Value]

+inhibition, alienation, dependence↓

+independence, self-assurance, motivation↑

+learner autonomy↑SS participation ↑

+discovery learning (inductive strategy of learning)

 

[Criticism]

- Too nondirective

:T involvement can prevent unnecessary struggle of Ss

- Too heavy reliance on an inductive strategy

: Deductive strategy is needed at least until Ss develop certain level of independence

-T's translation expertise is necessary- the quality of lesson depends on it

 

(2)  Suggestopedia

; argues that language acquisition can be maximally facilitated by desuggesting psychological barriers that learners bring with them to the learning situation.

: Georgi Lozanov contended that the human brain could process great quantities of material if given the   right conditions for learning, among which are a state of relaxation and giving over of control to the T.

 

-        Giving new identity : SS feel less inhibited

-        Music/ Comfortable seats : relaxed states of mind

 

[Value]

+ people realized that deliberately induced states of relaxation benefits Ss

+ people learned to believe in the power of human brain

 

[Criticism]

-It didn't considered understanding or creative problem solving.

Instead, it only focused on memorization

 

(3)  Silent way

; Silent way views that language learning is facilitated in the course of SS engaging in discovery learning while the teacher is silent.

 

*rest on more cognitive than affective arguments

① Humanistic approach

② Discovery learning

: Learning is facilitated if learners discover and create rather than remember what is to be learned.

: Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects

: Learning is facilitated by problem-solving including the materials to be learned

 

③ Subsumption theory: result in meaningful learning (rote X)

④ Inductive process

⑤    Problem-solving approach

 

- Use Cuisenaire rods and phonetics charts (sound-color chart) : encourage students to discover things.

- Learner-centered (J develop independency, autonomy, responsibility ↑)

 

[Criticism]

-T is too distant to provide feedback and encourage a communicative atmosphere

-T's explanation can save Ss' time and struggle

-Materials like charts and rods wear out soon- other materials are needed

 

2.    Comprehension based approach

(1) Total Physical Response

; is based on the trace theory which says that memory is increased if it is stimulated through association with motor activity. Typically, TPR heavily utilizes the imperative mood, even into more advanced proficiency level.

-        Command-based technique

-        Do a lot of listening – SS can receive sheer amount of comprehensible input before they speak.

-        Listening is accompanied by physical responses.

-        right-brain learning

-        stress-free condition

-        T: director / S: actor

-        T uses imperative mood, but it doesn’t require verbal responses from SS. (: stress-free condition)

+++ the appropriacy of getting students to move around in lesson, with students a more kinesthetic inclination.

 

Plus) The Audio-Motor Unit ; is an alternative command-based technique to TPR. It complements the weaknesses of TPR by giving a series of commands in the context. -        Includes logically-sequenced commands, all centering on a single topic. ★ -        T demonstrates the appropriate responses to the commands, using whatever realia are available to make the actions comprehensible. -        It can include cultural learning in the lessons.   (+) : The vocabulary, structures, and syntax of the the lg used in their lessons can be reinforced by exposure to the commands. : SS became strongly interested in the lessons through the physical acting out of cultural aspects. : The lessons, even though designed for the development of listening skills, have a real impact on oral production.

 

 

 

 

(2) The Natural Approach

; is mainly based on Krashen’s Input Hypothesis. Accordingly, the Natural Approach maintains that learners acquire language through engaging in natural communication, in which enough comprehensible input is provided.

 

-        The essence of language is meaning.

: Vocabulary, not grammar, is the heart of learning.

-        Emphasizes listening and reading as sources of SLA.

-        Encourages a silent period.

-        Use many means to offer comprehensible input including TPR commands and pair- and group-work.

-        Allows SS to respond in any way that shows they have comprehended the input.

-        Grammar is generally taught incidentally.

 

**Three Stages

①     Comprehension (Pre-production)

; During this first stage, the SS go through a silent period. They receive comprehensible input usually from the teachers. ☞ Development of listening comprehension skills

 

-        Often the TPR is used.

-        A lot of visuals, explanations, and repetitions are used.

-        Simple responses to the comprehensible input may be made. (: Responding O, Production X)

: gesturing, nodding, using he L1, answering “yes,” or “no,”

 

②     Early speech production

; Learners begin to produce language, and they gradually develop their interlangauge.

 

-        SS gradually answer “Mike has dress” instead of just “Mike” to T’s question “Who has on a blue dress?”

: Sentence-completion response with personalized question

-        T does not make a point of correcting errors during this stage

: Error correction should be minimalized.

 

③     Speech Emergence

; The last stage is one of extending production into longer stretches of discourse. The objective in this stage is to promote fluency.

 

-        The utterances become longer and more complex.

-        Many errors are still made but, if enough CI has been internalized, they should gradually decrease.

A large number of activities can be used that are more demanding and challenging but still within reach cognitively. (ex. role plays, discussion, problem-solving, affective activities)

 

 

**Applications

-        Conduct class primarily in the TL.

-        Use gestures, pictures, props, and dramatic flair.

-        Engage SS in conversation.

-        Use small-group and role-play activities.

-        Encourage SS to answer in any way they can or want to.

-        Explain grammar as SS have questions.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

<<Communicative Approach>>

<Communicative Competence>

 

1.     Canale and Swain’s Framework

①     Grammatical Competence

; refers to the degree to which the language user has mastered the linguistic code, including knowledge of lexical items and rules of morphology, syntax, semantics, and phonology.

☞ Focus on form approach: teach language forms in context

 

②     Discourse Competence

; The ability to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of series of utterances.

: The ability to combine ideas to achieve cohesion in the form and coherence in thought.

 

③     Sociolinguistic Competence

; The knowledge of the sociocultural rules of language and discourse.

(Understanding of the social context, the roles of participants, shared information, and the function of the interaction)

; The extent to which the second language can be used or understood appropriately in various contexts.

 

☞ Role-play

④     Strategic Competence

; The use of nonverbal & verbal communication strategies to compensate for gaps in the language user’s knowledge of the code or for communication breakdowns due to performance variables.

 

 

2.     Bachman’s Framework

 

: consists of three major components

-        Language competence

: made up of various kinds of knowledge that we use in communicating via language.

 (=knowledge of language)

-        Strategic competence &Psychophysiological mechanisms

: the mental capacities and physical mechanisms by which the knowledge of language is implemented in communicative language use.

 

Language Competence

 

1.       Organizational Competence

①     Grammatical competence

; relates to controlling the formal structure of language.

(Vocabulary/ Morphology/ Syntax / Phonology∙Graphology)

 

②     Textual competence (≒Discourse competence)

; relates to knowing how to construct discourse

    (Cohesion/ Coherence/ Rhetorical Organization)

 

(**Rhetorical Organization relates the ordering of information in discourse. Ex>cause-consequence, problem-solution, instrument-achievement relationship)

 

2.      Pragmatic Competence

①     Illocutionary competence

; Knowing how to use language in order to achieve certain communicative goals or intentions.

; Knowing how to perform a particular function or express an intention clearly.

= relates to the functional use of language

(Halliday’s Seven Functions of Language)

 

②     Sociolinguistic competence

; The knowledge of language’s appropriateness to the social context in which it is used.

-        Social knowledge is necessary to select the language forms to use in different settings, and with people in different roles and with different status.

(Sensitivity to Dialect∙Variety/ to register/ to naturalness/ to cultural references and figures of speech)

 

 

 

<Communicative Language Teaching>

 

1.     Major characteristics

-        Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence.

-        Lg techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes.

: Emphasizes cultural appropriateness.

: Organizational language forms are not the central focus, but rather aspects of lg that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes.

 

-        Both fluency and accuracy is emphasized. They are seen as complementary principles.

: Grammar is taught as needed for communication purposes.

: Error correction within conversational contexts.

 

-        SS ultimately have to use the language in unrehearsed contexts outside the classroom.

: Classroom tasks must there for equip SS with the skills necessary for communication in those contexts.

: Substantial use of negotiation of meaning in tasks.

 

-        SS are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process.

: through understanding of their own styles of learning.

: through developing appropriate strategies for autonomous learning.

 

-        T= facilitator and guide

 

2.     Implications

(1)   What Teachers do:

-        Conduct class primarily in the TL.

-        Engage SS in conversation.

-        Teach communication strategies.

-        Supply interesting and comprehensible input such as stories.

-        Use culturally appropriate small-group and role-play activities.

-        Engage SS in scaffolded conversations.

-        Negotiate meaning. Correct errors that interfere with communication.

 

(2)   What SS do:

-        Participate in small-group and conversational activities.

-        Listen to and read input.

-        Study grammar related to communicative needs.

 

 

+) Larsen-Freeman’s three characteristics of CLT

-        Almost everything that is done is with a communicative intent. (including communicative activities)

*****What are the features Activities that are truly communicative? (by Morrow)

①     Information gap

; an information gap exists when one person in an exchange knows something the other person does not.

②     Choice

; The speaker has a choice of what she will say (=content) and how she will say it (=form).

③     Feedback

; The speaker receive response or feedback from the listener.

-        The use of authentic materials.

-        Activities in CLT are often carried out by SS in small groups.

: Maximize the time allotted to each student for communicating.

 

 

<Techniques or Materials Associated with CLT>

 

1.     Authentic Materials

 

**Advantages

①     SS can transfer what they learn in the classroom to the outside world.

②     SS can be exposed to natural language in a variety of situations.

 

2.     Scrambled Sentences

; The SS are given a passage (a text, dialog, or even pictures as in a picture strip story) in which sentences are in a scrambled order.

→ They are told to unscramble the sentences so that the sentences are restored to their original order.

 

☞ Cohesion and Coherence

: SS learn how sentences are bound together at the suprasentential level through…

   formal linguistic devices (cohesion)

and semantic propositions (coherence)

 

3.     Language Games

: The SS find games enjoyable, and if they are properly designed, they give SS valuable communicative practice.

 

4.     Picture Strip Story

(: an example of problem-solving task)

 

**Procedure

Step 1: The teacher has the students divide into groups of five. Since there are thirty students, that creates six groups of five students.   Step 2:  One member of each group is given a picture strip story. There are six pictures in a row on a piece of paper, but no words. The pictures tell a story.   Step 3: The student with the story shows the first picture to the other members of his or her group, while covering the remaining five pictures. The other students try to predict what they think will happen in the second picture. The first student tells them whether they are correct or not. He or she then shows the second picture and asks them to predict what the third picture will look like.   Step 4: After the entire series of pictures has been shown, the group gets a new strip story and they change roles.

 

-        An information gap – the SS in the groups did not know what the picture contained.

-        Choice – SS had a choice as to what their prediction would be and how they would word it.

-        Feedback – SS receive feedback, not on the form but on the content of the prediction.

 

 

5.     Role Play

 

: give SS an opportunity to practice communicating in different social contexts and in different social roles.

** Structured role play: T tells the SS (who they are/ what they are talking about/ the situation)and what they should say.

-        Role play can be set up in a less structured way.

: The T tells the SS who they are….. but the SS determine what they will say.

 → is more in keeping with CLT, because it gives the SS more of a...

: choice – they can choose what they will say.

: information gaps – SS cannot be sure what the other people will say.

: feedback – on whether or not they have effectively communicated.

 

 

<Cooperative Language Learning>

 

**Two crucial concepts in the definition of cooperative learning

①     Positive interdependence; the perception among group members that what helps one group member helps all group members, and what hurts one group member hurts all.

→encourages cooperation and a feeling of support.

 

②     Individual accountability; The team’s success depends on the individual learning of all team members.

→ To achieve this, groups encourage all members to participate and to meaningfully demonstrate their knowledge and skills.

 

 

 

 

<Content-based Language Instruction>

: integrates the learning of subject-matter content with the learning of a L2. The overall structure of a content-based curriculum is dictated more by the nature of the subject matter than by language forms and sequences.

L2 is then simply the medium to convey informational content of interest and relevance to the learner.

-        The meaningful learning principle

: The strength of learning that is pointed toward practical non-language goals.

-        Increases intrinsic motivation

 

**Learning principles

①     Automaticity

②     Meaningful learning

③     Intrinsic motivation

④     Communicative competence

 

**Three Content-based Teaching Models

(1)  Immersion model

 ; is designed to teach both content and language simultaneously, based on the premise that people learn new language in the course of learning other things.

 

-        Theoretical background: Krashen’s input hypothesis (*exposure)

-        Uses authentic materials or the same materials used by native speakers the same content.

: Materials are not specifically designed for lg learners.

-        Target students have the same native language.

-        The content instruction is tailored to the needs of the lg learners.

-        The T have knowledge both about content and TL.

-        It has a natural integration of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills.

 

(2)  Theme-based Instruction

(=Topic-based Instruction)

; is the “weak” version of the Content-based Instruction, in that it places an equal value on content and language objectives. Language class is structured around topics or themes, forming the backbone of the course curriculum.

 

-        Contextualization of language items or activities

-        Topics can be selected to match students’ interests.

-        Integrate the topic into the teaching of all skills.

-        Materials are usually teacher-generated or adapted from the outside sources.

-        SS move to higher levels of language processing through the variety of text types, formats, and activities to which they are exposed.

 

-        Primary purpose: Help student develop L2 competence within specific topic areas

-        Instructional format: ESL course

-        Instructional responsibilities : Language instructor responsible for lg + content instruction

-        Student population: Nonnative speakers

-        Focus of evaluation: Language skills and functions

 

 

(3)  Sheltered Content Instruction (=Sheltered-language Instruction)

; Content courses taught in the L2 to a segregated group of learners by a content area specialist.

 

-        SS benefit from the adjustments and simplifications made by native speakers in communication with L2 learners.

-        Benefit from a low-anxiety situation.

-        Certain modifications made for the L2 learners

: Texts are carefully selected for their organization and clarity.

: The instructor makes linguistic adjustments to allow for SS’ listening comprehension difficulties

: greater emphasis on receptive skills and less on speaking and writing.

 

-        Primary purpose: Help SS master content material

-        Instructional format: content course

-        Instructional responsibilities: Content instructor responsible for content instruction

                        (Incidental language learning)

-        Student population: Nonnative speakers

-        Focus of evaluation: Content mastery

 

(4)  Adjunct language Instruction (=Adjunct model)

; SS are enrolled concurrently in two linked courses- a language course and a content course. L2 learners are sheltered in the language course and integrated in the content course, where both native and non-native students attend the same lecture.

: Two courses share the content base and complement each other in terms of mutually coordinated assignments. → The language teacher’s focus is on helping SS process the lg in order to understand the        academic content presented by the subject teacher. He also helps SS to complete academic tasks.

 

: The materials used in the language course differ significantly from a more traditional ESL course.

 

-        Primary purpose: Help SS master content material. Introduce SS to L2 academic discourse and develop transferable academic skills.

-        Instructional format: Linked content and ESL courses

-        Instructional responsibilities: Content instructor (content instruction)

                       +Language instructor (language instruction)

 

(5)  Competency-based instruction

; an effective form of content-based instruction for an adult immigrants, offers SS an opportunity to develop their second language skills at the same time that they are learning vital “life-coping” or “survival” skills such as filling out job applications or using the telephone.

 

Content-Driven		Language-Driven
Sheltered Model	Adjunct Model	Theme-based Model

 

 

 

 

<Task-based learning/ Instruction>

; In Task-based Instruction, learners are given tasks to perform first before they attend to language forms

(: deep-end strategy), and accomplish the task outcome through negotiation of meaning, in which course language acquisition is facilitated.

 

1.     Critical Features of a Task

-        A task involves a primary focus on meaning

: Learners engage in using language pragmatically rather than displaying language.

(Develop L2 proficiency through communicating)

       → A task incorporates some kind of ‘gap’ (:an information, opinion, or reasoning gap)

           : motivates learners to use language in order to close it.

            = ‘Gap” would require a focus on meaning.

       → A task allows participants to choose the language needed to achieve the outcome.

            : A task does not specify what lg the task participants should use.

 

-        A task involves real-world processes of language use

: it requires learners to engage in a language activity that can be found in the real world.

: makes communication in language class more realistic.

 

-        A task integrates any of the four language skills in culturally appropriate ways.

-        A task engages cognitive processes (: there is a problem to solve)

: requires learners to employ cognitive processes such as selecting, classifying, ordering, reasoning, and evaluating information in order to carry out the task.

-        A task has a clearly defined communicative outcome.

: It stipulates the nonlinguistic outcome of the task, which serves as the goal of the activity for the learners. (≠Aim: pedagogic purpose of the task)

: The assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.

 

 

**Making “exercise” more task-like (윤도형 119p) ①     By splitting the information. : resulting ‘gap’ would require a focus on meaning. ②     Removing the model sentences : The participants choose their own linguistic resources by removing the model sentences. ③     Definite outcome   **Cue-card activity -        Task-like features : Oral interaction – bear some resemblance to an authentic conversation : To some extent, the participants are free to choose the linguistic resources   However, -        Primary focus is on form rather than meaning : The meanings of the utterances are given so that the learners can find the linguistic forms to encode the stated functions. -        Outcome X : Only outcome is the performance of the activity itself

 

2.     Framework for Task-based Learning

 

(1)  Willis’s Framework for Task-based Language Teaching

①     Pre-task

-        T explores the topic with the class

-        T highlights useful words & phrases.

-        T helps SS to understand the task instructions.

-        SS may hear a recording of other people doing the same work.

 

②     Task cycle

→ Task phase: Learners carry out a meaning-focused activity

-        Accuracy and complexity of the language use is not important

-        SS concentrate on fluency, producing forms of the lg that come readily to them.

          

-        T monitors

→ Planning phase: Learners attend to form in preparation for the report phase.(:rehearse)

-        The assumption is that when learners are given planning time, they will focus on form and try to produce more complex language.

 

-        T as language adviser

→ Report phase: Learners are required to present the results of their task phase work to the whole class.

-        In public performance, learners will be motivated to produce not only fluent but also accurate language. (: A smooth transition from private to more public interaction)

        (: SS are forced to attend to form)

 

 

 

-        T acts as chairperson, selecting who will speak next, or ensuring all SS read most of the written reports.

-        T gives feedback both on content and form

 

③     Language focus

→ Analysis (Analysis activity)

: Learners do consciousness-raising activities to identify and process specific language features from the task text and/ or transcript. (☞Focus on form approach)

      : may ask about other features they have noticed.

 

→ Practice (Practice activity)

       : Conducts practice activities after analysis activities where necessary, to build confidence.

 

 

(2)  Nunan’s Framework for Task-based Language Teaching

 

(**Target tasks: which SS must accomplish beyond the classroom: similar to the functions of lg, but much more specific and more explicitly related to classroom instruction.→specifies a context)

(**Pedagogical tasks: any series of techniques designed ultimately to teach SS to perform the target task. – Climactic pedagogical tasks involves SS in simulation of the target task. Ex>role-play simulation)

 

①     Schema Building

: Develop schema-building exercises to …

-        introduce the topic

-        set the context for the task

-        introduce key vocabulary and expressions (that the SS will need in order to complete the task)

 

②     Controlled Practice

: Give learners controlled practice in the TL vocabulary, structures, and functions.

-        SS listen to and read the conversation, and then practice in pairs.

: The difference form a traditional ALM lesson

☞ Learners have been introduced to the lg within a communicative context.

 

③     Authentic Listening Practice

: Give learners intensive (authentic) listening practice.

-        Learners are exposed to authentic or simulated conversation, which extend the lg from the model conversation in step 2.

 

④     Focus on Linguistic Elements (: Language focus work)

: Focus learners on linguistic elements (e.g., grammar and vocabulary)

-        Learners have seen, heard and spoken the TL within a communicative context, before analyzing elements of the linguistic elements.

☞ Make it easier for the learner to see the relationship between communicative meaning and linguistic form.

⑤     Provide Freer Practice

: SS are encouraged to extemporize, using whatever lg they have at their disposal to complete the task.

 (: SS create their own meanings)      Ex> an information hap role play

-        Pushed output: learners are ‘pushed’ by the task to the edge of their current linguistic competence.

-        Negotiation of meaning

 

⑥     Introduce the Pedagogical Task

: Transform the real-world tasks into pedagogical tasks, to create learning opportunities in the classroom.

: Pedagogical Tasks can be placed on a continuum from rehearsal tasks to activation tasks.

 

-        Rehearsal tasks: have an obvious relationship to the real-world counterparts.

→ SS can rehearse something they’re going to need to do outside the classroom.

-        Activation tasks: to provide learners with an opportunity to activate their emerging language skills. – use lg creatively

 

 

**Classification of Tasks

(1)   Cognitive Classification

①     Information-gap activity

; involves a transfer of given information from one person to another, from one form to another, or from one place to another, in order to complete a task.

 Ex> ‘same-or-different’

②     Opinion-gap activity

; requires that SS give their personal preferences, feelings, or attitudes in order to complete a task.

 Ex> making choices, surveys, debates, ranking activities, and general discussion

③     Reasoning-gap activity

; requires SS to derive some new information by inferring it from information they have been given.

 

 

(2)   Psycholinguistic Classification

 

Task type	Interactant relationship	Interaction requirement	Goal Orientation	Outcome options
Jigsaw	two-way	Required	Convergent	Closed
Information gap	One or two-way	Required	Convergent	Closed
Problem solving	One or two-way	Optional	Convergent	Closed
Decision making	One or two-way	Optional	Convergent	Open
Opinion exchange	One or two-way	Optional	Divergent	open

 

①     Interactant relationship: One-way tasks vs Two-way tasks

;whether the information to be shared is held by a single person (one-way)or between two or more people (two-way).

-        One-way tasks: the burden of completing the task successfully is placed on the participant who holds the information.

-        Two-way tasks: all the participants are obligated to participate in order to complete the task.

②     Interaction requirement: Required tasks vs Optional tasks

; whether the task requires participants to request and supply information or whether this is optional

 

③     Goal orientation: Divergent tasks vs Convergent tasks

; whether the task requires the participants to agree on a single outcome or allows them to disagree.

④     Task outcome: Open tasks vs Closed tasks

-        Open tasks: there is no predetermined solution

-        Closed tasks: require SS to reach a single, correct solution.

 

1)     Jigsaw tasks: These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole.

2)     Information-gap tasks: One student or group of SS has one set of information and another student or group has a complementary set of information. They must negotiate and find out what the other party’s information is in order to complete an activity.

3)     Problem-solving tasks: SS are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of the outcome.

4)     Decision-making tasks: SS are given a problem for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.

5)     Opinion exchange tasks: Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement.

 

3.     PPP vs TBI model★★★

(ALM L : meaningful learning / contextualized learning  ☞ PPP J : meaningful, contextualized)

The PPP model	The task-based model
①     Traditional approach ②     Fluency develops out of accuracy ③     Grammatical knowledge is proceduralized through practice (:linear processing) ④     Product-oriented syllabus (:pre-determined)	①     Communicative approach ②     Accuracy develops after fluency ③     The internal grammar develops through exposure and interaction ④     Process-oriented syllabus (:pre-determined X)
Presentation     → practice →    production (situation/context)    (controlled)       (freer)	Pre-task  →     task cycle    → language focus          (task / planning/ report)

 

 

<Project Work>

1.     The Primary Characteristics of Project Work

-        Focuses on content learning rather than on specific language targets.

-        Student-centered (: T – offers support and guidance)

-        Cooperative

-        Leads to the authentic integration of skills

-        Leads to processing of information from varied sources (≒ real-life tasks)

-        Has both a process and product orientation

: culminates in an end product, giving the project a real purpose

: The value of the project lies also in the process of working toward the end point.

-        Focus on fluency and accuracy at different project-work stages.

-        Motivating, stimulating, empowering, and challenging

☞ results in building student confidence, self-esteem, and autonomy

☞ improving SS’ language skills, content learning, and cognitive abilities.

 

2.     Organizing Project

 

①     Agree on theme

②     Determine the final outcome

③     Structure the project

④     Prepare SS for the language demands of Step 5 (:language intervention lessons/ activities)

⑤     Gather information

⑥     Prepare SS for the language demands of Step 7

⑦     Compile and analyze information

⑧     Prepare SS for the language demands of Step 9

⑨     Present final product

⑩     Evaluate the project

<Lexical Approach>

 

; The essential building blocks of language are words and word combinations, and that lexis therefore plays a central role in designing language courses and classroom methodology. Michael Lewis maintained that one can “do” almost anything in a language with vocabulary, and once those lexical units are internalized, other (grammatical and discourse) elements of language can be acquired, given a meaningful context.

 

-        Emphasizes lexical phrases, or collocations, as central to a language course.

-        Has been considerably buoyed by the recent surge of corpus analysis.

 

+)윤도형 -        A syllabus should be organized around meanings (=semantic syllabus) -        The most frequent words encode the most frequent meanings. (:lexical syllabus) : Meaning is encoded primarily in words. : Use corpus data to find out the high frequency words. -        Words typically co-occur with other words. : Use corpus data to find out the kinds of words and structures (=syntactic environment /patterns) that are associated with high frequency words. : First principle meanings, and then their typical syntactic environments are identified. -        These co-occurrences (or chunks) are an aid to fluency. -        Language learning is essentially a process of item learning, as opposed to rule learning. : skeptical about the value of studying traditional grammar rules at all.     **Lexical chunks (: Multi-word units : Pre-fabricated language/patterns) -        acquired as a single, unanalyzed units -        The capacity to use these chunks in conversational exchanges is an important factor in developing fluency (especially in early language production) ☞ ① saves valuable processing time = Ready-made language chunks                                 (Language available for immediate use) ③      Provides learners with language patterns to hold in reserve for later analysis

 

<Multiple Intelligence Approach>

; Learners differ from each other in many ways, and MI is one way of categorizing those differences. If teachers can be guided to recognize SS’ unique strengths and weaknesses through attention to MI, and can follow with appropriately geared activities, they will certainly enrich language courses and will possibly enable SS to better accomplish their purposes.

 

** Seven distinct intelligences (Gardner) and examples of activities that fit each type of intelligence

Logical/mathematical	Puzzles, games, logical, sequential presentations, classifications & categorizations
Visual/ spatial	Charts & grids, videos, drawing
Body/kinesthetic	Hands-on activities, field trips, pantomime
Musical/ rhythmic	Singing, playing music, jazz chants
Interpersonal	Pairwork, project work, group problem-solving
Intrapersonal	Self-evaluation, journal keeping, options for homework
Verbal/linguistic	Note-taking, story telling, debates

<Other methods to Communicative Approach>

 

1.     Episode Hypothesis

; argues that text will be easier to reproduce, understand, and recall, to the extent that it is structured episodically. In other words, the presentation of lg is enhanced if SS receive interconnected sentences in an interest-provoking episode rather than in a disconnected series of sentences. (☞Condition for materials in CA)

 

-        Primarily related to Reading and Listening

-        Learners are motivated to continue reading and to become more involved in the content than in the lg.

-        “Stories” are universal. – SS from many different cultures can understand their organizational structure and identify with the characters.

-        Contributes to integrated-skills teaching

Ex> SS can be encouraged to write their own episodes, or to complete an episode.

    Written episodes might then be dramatized in the classroom.

 

 

2.     Experiential Language Learning

; emphasizes concrete experiences through which SS “discover” language principles (even if subconsciously) by trial and error, processing feedback, by building hypotheses about lg, and by revising these assumptions in order to become fluent.

 

-        Includes activities that…

: engage both left- and right-brain processing

: contextualize language

: integrate skills

: point toward authentic, real-world purposes.

: Problem-solving

-        Put emphasis on the psychomotor aspects of language learning by involving learners in physical action.

-        Learner-centered experiential techniques..

: hands-on projects (or activity)

       : field-trips and other “on-site” visits

       : role plays and simulation

 

☞ TBP : Language Experience Approach (refer other version in “Receptive skills”)

; an integrated-skills approach initially used in teaching native language reading skills, but more recently adapted to SLA contexts.

 

**Procedure

-        SS’ personal experiences are used as the basis for discussion.

T writes down the experience.

-        SS can then recopy, edit, and/or illustrate the story, which is preserved in the form of a “book”

-        A number of activities can then follow.

: word study, spelling focus, semantic discussions, inference, prediction…

 

**Benefits

-        Intrinsic motivation : SS in creating their own stories rather than being given other ppl’s stories.

-        SS are involved in the creative process of fashioning their own products.

-        All four skills are readily implied in carrying out a project.

 

 

 

 

3.     Whole language Approach/Education

; In the real world of language use, not an individual skill is involved but the integration of one or more skills are involved. (:interrelationship of the four skills)

☞ T should integrate skills in language classroom for SS to have communicative competence.

   T should help SS attend to such wholes and not to build language only from the bottom up.

 

+TBP) Now the term has come to encompass a great deal more.  Whole language is a label that has been used to describe: -         The “wholeness” of language (:The lg is not the sum of its many dissectible and discrete parts.) -         The interaction and interconnections between oral language and written language. -         The importance of the written code as natural and developmental, just as the oral code is. -         Cooperative learning -         Participatory learning -         Student-centered learning -         Focus on the community of learners -         Focus on the social nature of language -         Use of authentic, natural language -         Meaning-centered language

 

*Ways of ensuring that skills are integrated

-Integrated skills activities

-Get learners to collaborate, in pairs or in groups

-fluency-focused tasks

-simulation and project work

 

4.     Learner-centered Approach/ Instruction

Learner-centered instruction aims to give learners more say in areas that are traditionally considered the domain of the teacher by providing learners with great autonomy.

- techniques that focus on learners’ needs, styles, and goals.

- techniques that give some control to the student.

- curricula that include the consultation and input of students and that do not presuppose objectives in advance.

- techniques that allow for student creativity and innovation.

- techniques that enhance a student’s sense of competence and self-worth.

 

 

5.     Interaction-based Approach/ Interactive learning

; The communicative purpose of language compels us to create opportunities for genuine interaction in the classroom.

 

-         Interactive nature of communication

: When we speak, the extent to which intended message is received is a factor of both speaker’s production and the listener’s perception.

 

-         Interactive classes will most likely be found..

: doing a pair work and group

: receiving authentic lg input in real-world contexts

: producing language for genuine, meaningful communication

: performing classroom tasks that prepare SS for actual language use “out there”

: writing to and for real audiences, not contrived ones

: Practicing oral communication through the give and take and spontaneity of actual conversations.

↓↓↓ 공감은 저에게 큰 힘이 되어요. ↓↓↓